On Rhetoric 3.13-19

"Rhetorical Arrangement"

Commentary

CONTENTS:

• Parts of a Speech  (3.13)

• The Introduction  (3.14) 

• The Statement

• Proof (3.17)

  • Interrogation  (3.18)

• The Conclusion  (3.19)

• Suggestions for Further Reading

I.  Parts of a Speech   (3.13)

1.  Aristotle now moves on to a discussion of the parts of a speech, which he reduces to two: (1) a statement of the proposition (prothesis), which lays out the position of the speaker and (2) proof (pistis), which demonstrates the truth of the proposition.  Every sppech, no matter what its purpose should at least have these two necessary parts.

2.   In certain cases he also allows for an introduction (prooemium) and a conclusion (epilogus), bringing the basic parts of a speech to four:

• Introduction (prooemium)

• Statement of the Proposition (prothesis)

• Proof  (pistis)

• Conclusion (epilogos)

II.  The Introduction (3.14)

1.  The term for introduction in Greek is pro-oimion, which very roughly translates as "introductory song."  

2.  The aim of an introduction is to show what the end (telos) of the speech is.  This is especially important if the speech is long or complicated (if the point of your speech is extremely clear or if it will be very short, you probably don't need an introduction).

3. The introduction:  (1) gives the audience a foretaste of your position in a way that will excite their curiosity, (2) is especially important if the arguments in your sppech are weak, and, if used in the right way, (3) can dispose the audience favorably to you and to your position.

4.  One useful bit of advice that Aristotle gives is to avoid being vague or obscure in your introduction, since this will only confuse your audience.

II.  The Statement (Prothesis) 

1.  A Prothesis is statement of your position (literally your thesis) at the beginning of your speech.

2.  Your introduction has led your audience into your topic in an interesting and engaging way.  Now you have to state your position in a clear and forceful way (this is not the time to be clever or complicated).  Your audience should have no doubts about where you stand in this speech.

III.  Proof (3.17)

1.  Proof, says Aristotle,  should be demonstrative (apodeiktika).  It should, in other words, compel a rather audience to accept the truth of the position that you laid out in your Statement (prothesis).  For example:

• Forensic Rhetoric:  "During these proceedings I will demonstrate to you beyond a shadow of a doubt why my client is innocent."

• Epideitic Rhetoric: "Pericles was a great leader for these reasons...."

• Deliberative Rhetoric:  "Here are the reasons why I belive that this policy is unsound."

2.   In Book Two Aristotle told us that we we can demonstrate the truth of our claims to the audience by using Enthymemes, Maxims and Examples.  

IV.  Interrogation (3.18)

1.  According to George Kennedy, the discussion of interrogation in this section has a direct connection to the trial system in Athens during the time of Aristotle:

In Athenian judicial procedure indictment resulted from a preliminary hearing before one of the...magistrates, at which some prima facie evidence was presented and witnesses offered testimony.  Though rather little is known about how the hearing was conducted, it is likely that the defendant could interrogate the witnesses and try to show that there was no merit in the charge."  (278)

2.  In interrogating an opponent it is important to lead them to the point where there position becomes absurd or contradictory.

3.  In replying to Interrogation, Aristotle offers the following advice

• Often a clever interrogator will try to trap you by intentionally asking an ambiguous or loaded question that is difficult to answer without compromising your position (i.e.,  "How long has it been since you stopped beating your wife" or "Aren't you aware that your kind of bleeding heart liberalism went out in the 60's?").  Under no circumstances should you ever directly answer this type of question.  Instead respond by making a distinction between your own real position and the one that your interrogator is trying to box you into.

VII. The Conclusion (3.19)

1.  The term in Greek is epilogos:  epi (something added on) + logos (speech).

2.  The purpose of a conclusion, according to Aristotle. is fourfold:

• to favorably dispose the audience towarsd the speaker (and against his opponent)

• to amplify and diminish certain arguments/facts

• to inspire emotion [pathe] in the audience

• to give a reminder of the chief points in the speech

Suggestions for Further Reading 

• Cooper, Lane, trans. and intro.  The Rhetoric of Aristotle.  Englewood Cliffs, NJ;  Prentice Hall, 1962. 

• Garver, Eugene.  Aristotle's Rhetoric.  Chicago:  University of Chicago Press, 1994.

• Grimaldi, William.  Aristotle's Rhetoric: A Commentary.  2 vols.  New York: Fordham University Press, 1980-1988.

• Kennedy, George A.  Aristotle:  On Rhetoric.  New York:  Oxford University Press, 1991.