On Rhetoric 2.18-26

"Logos"

Commentary

CONTENTS:

• Logos (2.18-26) 

  • Examples

  • Maxims

  • Enthymemes

• Suggestions for Further Reading

Logos (2.18-26)

• We now move from a discussion of character to a discussion of the tools for logical argumentation.   Although there are some neat topics discussed by Aristotle in 2.18-20, for the sake of brevity and simplicity, we will jump directly to his treatment of the universal means of persuasion (example, maxim and enthymeme) in 2.20-22.

I.  Examples (2.20)

• examples are of two kinds:  historical and fictitious.

  • historical examples:

    • pointing out that a situation from the past is similar to a current situation, and that, therefore, it's out come will likely also be similar

    • e.g., "In the past when Eqypt was conquered it led to all of Greece being conquered.  Therefore, we should not allow Egypt to be conquered."

  • fictitious examples  

    • a fable is a fictitious story with a moral.  All fables use a specific made up story to derive universal conclusions  (e.g., the tortoise and the hare).

• fictitious examples are easier to provide, but carry less weight than historical examples.

• when examples are used alone as a means of proof, we need to use many.  When they support a strong argument, they serve and a witness, and one good example is sufficient.

II.  Maxims  (2.21) 

• a maxim is an opinion that is given as a piece of advice, and which are usually pithy (brief).

  • e.g., "Spare the rod and spoil the child."  "Foolish to kill the father and spare the child."

• controversial or paradoxical maxims need to be supplemented by the speaker, while those that are obvious can stand on their own almost as an argument in themselves.

• maxims are effect because they state as a universal rule the opinions that many people typically already hold on a particular subject.

III.  Enthymemes ( 2.22) 

 

3a.  What the Hell is an Enthymeme?

• Aristotle describes the enthymeme as "a kind of syllogism" or as a syllogism that is used in rhetoric.  This begs the question unfortunately of what exactly a syllogism is.

• A syllogism is nothing more than a deductive argument used in logic.

  • A deductive argument is one in which a group of statements (premises) lead to another group of statements (conclusions)

    • a conclusion is the statement or argument designed to be supported or defended.

    • premises are the starting points of an argument.  Thy are used to defend the conclusion and are typically affirmed without any defense. 

  • Example 1:

    All mammals are warm blooded creatures  [premise 1].

    A whale is a warm blooded creature  [premise 2].

    Therefore, a whale is a warm blooded creature  [conclusion].

  • Example 2:

    If there are millions of habitable planets in our galaxy, then it seems likely that life has evolved on more than just this one  [premise 1].

    There are millions of habitable planets in the galaxy  [premise 2].

    Therefore it seems likely that life has evolved on more than just this one  [conclusion].

• Therefore an enthymeme is a deductive argument that is used in rhetoric for the purpose of persuading an audience.  Or to put this in other words...

  • "The task of a speaker [according to Aristotle] is to prove a case to the satisfaction of an audience....This is above all a matter of demonstrating various things..., and a speech that sets out to demonstrate various things...does it by presenting considerations for the audience to think about (enthumema)."  (Burnyeat 93)   The things that are presented to the audience for their consideration nothing other than arguments....or enthymemes.

  • The difference between the kind of argument that might be used in logic (the syllogism) and the kind of argument that is used in rhetoric (the enthymeme) is that the latter can be described as a "relaxed" or "abbreviated"argument  (Burnyeat 96, 100).  

    • Because most audiences are usually not made up of experts on the subject being discussed, it doesn't make sense for the speaker to use a long and complicated line of reasoning.  He has to adjust his arguments---which may be very complex---to the limitations of his audience.

    • Knowing this information, one could say the following about enthymemes:  (1) they must be arguments about things which are capable of being otherwise than they are, and (2) they must restrict the number of premises that they use (Bunyeat 100).

  • example:

    • syllogism:

      "All sentient beings have equal rights (premise 1).

      The water rat is a sentient being  (premise 2).

      Therefore, the water rat has rights equal to human beings (conclusion)."

    • enthymemes:

      "All sentient are created equal, and you know that the water rat is a sentient being."

      or:  "The water rat is a sentient being, and therefore has the same rights as a human being." 

 

3b.  Tips on Using Enthymemes (2.22)

• avoid long an convoluted arguments in speeches lest you loose your audience (i.e., cut out obvious premises, etc).

• arguments should begin from opinions commonly held by your audience, since this will help to make your arguments clearer to your audience.

• understand the subject matter upon which you are speaking, otherwise you will have difficulty drawing intelligible conclusions.

Suggestions for Further Reading

• Bitzer, Lloyd F.  "Aristotle's Enthymeme Revisted."  Quarterly Journal of Speech 45 (1959): 399-408.

• Burnyeat, M.F.  "Enthymeme:  Aristotle on the Rationality of Rhetoric."   Essays on Aristotle's Rhetoric.  Ed. Amelie O. Rorty.  Berkeley:  University of California Press, 1996.  

• Cooper, Lane, trans. and intro.  The Rhetoric of Aristotle.  Englewood Cliffs, NJ;  Prentice Hall, 1962. 

• Garver, Eugene.  Aristotle's Rhetoric.  Chicago:  University of Chicago Press, 1994.

• Grimaldi, William.  Aristotle's Rhetoric: A Commentary.  2 vols.  New York: Fordham University Press, 1980-1988.

• Hauser, Gerald A.  "The Example in Aristotle's Rhetoric: Bifurcation or Contradiction?"  Philosophy and Rhetoric 1 (1968): 78-90.

• ---.  "Aristotle's Example Revisited."  Philosophy and Rhetoric 18 (1985): 171-179.

• Kennedy, George A.  Aristotle:  On Rhetoric.  New York:  Oxford University Press, 1991..

• McBurney, James A.  "The Place of the Enthymeme in Rhetorical Theory."  Speech Monographs 3 (1936): 49-74.