On Rhetoric 1.1-3

"What is Rhetoric?"

Commentary

 

CONTENTS

What is Rhetoric?  (1.1-3)

A.  Introduction  (1.1)  

  • In the fist sentence of On Rhetoric we read that "rhetoric is the counterpart (antistrophos) to dialectic."  (1354a)  But what exactly does this mean?
  • It is first important to note that Aristotle divides all of the known sciences in four categories:
  1. Theoretical Sciences:    mathematics, physics, theology
  2. Practical Arts:    politics and ethics
  3. Productive Arts:    fine arts, crafts, medicine
  4. Tools:  dialectics, rhetoric
  • A tool (organum)  for Aristotle is something that has....
  1. no subject matter of its own
  2. is applicable to all other subjects
  • Rhetoric as the counterpart (antistrophos) to dialectic:
    • Dialectic are formal logical debates on various subjects that were performed at Aristotle's Lyceum: 
      • "The procedure in dialectic was for one student to state a thesis (e.g., "Pleasure is the only good") and for a second student to try to refute this by asking a series of questions that could be answered by yes or no.  If successful, the interlocutor led the respondent into a contradiction or logically undefensible position by means of definition and division of the question or by drawing analogies; however, the respondent might be able to defend his position and win the argument."  (Kennedy, Aristotle 26)
    • similarities
      • both rhetoric and dialects, then, are tool that are useful in other disciplines
      • concerned with subjects in the common realm of knowledge, not specialized sciences
    • differences:
Dialectic Rhetoric

proceeds by means of question and answer

uses continuous exposition

only logical arguments used

uses any and all means of persuasion

deals with general/philosophical questions

(e.g., nature of justice)

deals with concrete/practical questions

(e.g., was this action just?)
  • Rhetoric as an art (techne):  
    • an art is "a body of knowledge used for a particular end."
    • examples:
Art End
dialectic arguing soundly
politics creating a harmonious social order
carpentry creating beautiful/useful objects out of wood
  • end of rhetoric = to persuade an audience
  • Why is Rhetoric Useful?  (1355a-b)
    • to advance the cause of justice and truth 
      • think of the rhetoric used by M.L. King for example during the civil rights movement
    • to persuade the masses 
      • most human beings can't be persuaded by means of logic or scientific explanations. One, therefore, needs to use more subtle (e.g., rhetorical) means to persuade them.
    • to argue both sides of an issue 
      • this is a particularly useful way to train you to to recognize and be able to defeat vicious argument.  If you are a liberal, for example, try arguing a position held by Rush Limbaugh.
    • to defend yourself against verbal attacks
      • if you were being assaulted physically, you would defend yourself, wouldn't you?  You should do no less when you are being attacked verbally.

B.  Definition of Rhetoric (1.2)

  • rhetoric = "the ability (dynamis) of observing in any given case (peri hekaston) the available means of persuasion (pisteis)." 
    • dynamis: ability, power; capacity, faculty
    • peri hekaston:  rhetoric always deals with concrete situations and circumstances (vs dialectic)
    • pisteis:  derived from the Greek verb "pisteuo," meaning "I trust"
  • pisteis:  the means of persuasion used in rhetoric fall into two categories:
    • artistic means of persuasion:  they belong to the art of rhetoric and therefore are capable of being taught
    • non-artistic means of persuasion:  they do not belong properly speaking to the art of rhetoric.  Although they can be used to persuade an audience, they cannot be taught.

     

  • Aristotle divided the artistic means of persuasion into three categories
  1. those derived from the good character (ethos) of the speaker.  
  2. those derived from the emotions (pathos) of the audience.
  3. those derived from the validity of arguments (logos) used.
  • therefore the successful rhetor needs to understand:
  1. ethics:  the study of human character
  2. psychology: the study of emotional states
  3. logic: the study of argumentation

C.  Three Genres of Rhetoric (1.3)

  • Aristotle outlines three different genres of rhetoric that correspond to the different audiences that one is addressing.    The members of one's audience will likely be one of the following:
  1. judge or jury:  has to make a decision about some event now past  (was it just or unjust?)
  2. legislator or voter:  has to make a decision  about some future action (is it advantageous or disadvantageous?
  3. spectator:  has to make a judgment about about an individual's character (is noble or shameful?)
  • Based upon this description of the the three different types of audiences, Aristotle then describes the end (telos) of each of the three different genres of rhetoric:
  1. Forensic Rhetoric:  aims at persuading an audience that a particular past action was just or unjust  (e.g., Trial Speech)
  2. Deliberative Rhetoric:  aims at persuading an audience that a future action  is advantageous or disadvantageous  (e.g., Political Speech)
  3. Epideitic Rhetoric:  aims at persuading an audience that a particular subject/individual is noble or base.  (e.g., Funeral/Pulpit Oration)
Genre of Rhetoric Audience Time Ends Means
Forensic judge or jury past  just/unjust action accusation/defense
Deliberative legislator or voter future  advant./disadvant. action persuasion/dissuasion
Epideitic spectator present noble/base subject praise/blame

 

Suggestions for Further Reading

  • Cope, E.M.  An Introduction to Aristotle's Rhetoric.  London: MacMillan, 1867.
  • Garver, Euguene.  Aristotle's Rhetoric: An Art of Character.  Chicago: Univ. of Chicago, 1994.
  • Hill, Forbes, "The Amorality of Aristotle's Rhetoric."  Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 22 (1981): 133-147.
  • Kennedy, George A., trans. and intro.  Aristotle: On Rhetoric.  New York: Oxford UP, 1991.
  • ---.  Classical Rhetoric and Its Christian and Secular Tradition.  2nd ed.  Chapel Hill, NC:  Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1999.
  • Lanigan, Richard L. "Enthymeme:  The Rhetorical Species of Aristotle's Syllogism."  Southern Speech Communication Speech Communication Journal 39 (1974): 207-222.
  • Rorty, Amelie O, ed.  Essays on Aristotle's Rhetoric.  Berkeley:  Univ. of California Press, 1996. 
  • Rowland, Robert C. and Womack, Deanna F.  "Aristotle's View of Ethical Rhetoric."  Rhetoric Society Quartely 15.1-2 (1985): 13-31.
  • Self, Lois S.  "Rhetoric and Phronesis: The Aristotelian Ideal."  Philosophy and Rhetoric 12 (1979): 130-145.

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